ChatGPT and Second Language Writing: Exploring the Impact of GPT and AI-Based CALL on High School Students: A Qualitative Phenomenological Study

Abstract: The rapid growth in artificial intelligence (AI) and Generative Pre-trained Transformer (GPT) technology has provided new opportunities and challenges in the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and second language acquisition (SLA). This qualitative phenomenological study will aim to describe the impact of GPT technologies, specifically ChatGPT, and other AI-based CALL resources on second language writing skills among high school students. By examining the experiences of foreign language teachers who have implemented these technologies in their classrooms, this research seeks to understand potential benefits and limitations of integrating AI and GPT models into language learning curricula.

Introduction

            As Stephen Hawking once said, “The rise of powerful AI will be either the best or the worst thing ever to happen to humanity. We do not yet know which.” With the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) and generative pre-trained transformer (GPT) models, the potential benefits for second language acquisition (SLA) are vast. These technologies offer language learners the potential for high-quality, authentic language input, real-time feedback, and personalized learning experiences (Lai et al., 2017; Godwin-Jones, 2019). However, there is still limited research on how AI and GPT models can enhance specific language skills, particularly in high school foreign language classrooms (Li, 2020; Wang & Derakhshan, 2021).

Writing is a crucial component of SLA and essential for communication and academic success (Hinkel, 2005). Describing and gaining a better understanding of how AI and GPT models, such as ChatGPT, can enhance second language writing skills and be effectively integrated into writing instruction is imperative. One way that GPT models can benefit language learners is by generating high-quality, authentic language input that exposes learners to the target language in various contexts and registers (Hsu et al., 2021). Additionally, GPT models can provide real-time feedback and assessment, which can help learners identify areas for improvement and track their progress (Zhang et al., 2020).

Moreover, ChatGPT can generate authentic writing prompts that expose learners to various writing styles and registers, which can help learners develop their writing skills in different contexts (Brown, 2021). As writing can be one of the most challenging aspects of language learning for many learners (Chapelle, 2001), ChatGPT has the potential to provide learners with personalized, high-quality feedback on their writing, helping them improve their writing skills (Shen et al., 2019).

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has seen tremendous growth over the years, with several software programs available for second language learners, such as Rosetta Stone, Duolingo, Babbel, and Lingoda. Duolingo, for example, has grown into one of the most popular language learning apps, with over 575 million users (Usesignhouse, 2022) as of 2023. Moreover, Duolingo is already incorporating GPT technology to generate personalized lessons and provide instant feedback to learners, making language learning more fun, engaging, and interactive (Vesselinov & Grego, 2019).

The potential benefits of AI and GPT technology for SLA, particularly in the context of writing, are vast, and understanding how they potentially could be effectively integrated into language instruction is imperative. The current study aims to describe the impact of ChatGPT and AI technology on second language writing skills in an attempt to try and understand its potential for improving writing instruction.

Research Problem

The rapid advancement of AI and GPT models in education, specifically in the realm of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and second language acquisition (SLA), offers opportunities to revolutionize language learning (Hsu et al., 2021). However, limited research has investigated the impact of these technologies on specific language skills, particularly writing, and their integration into high school foreign language classrooms (Li, 2020; Wang & Derakhshan, 2021). As writing is a crucial component of SLA, it is essential to better understand how AI and GPT models, such as ChatGPT, can enhance second language writing skills and be effectively integrated into writing instruction within this specific context.

Despite the potential benefits of AI and GPT technologies for language learning, several challenges remain. For example, these technologies require access to high-quality language data and the development of unbiased and complete language models (Xie et al., 2021). Additionally, there may be concerns about the reliability and validity of the real-time feedback generated by these technologies (Zhang et al., 2020). Therefore, it is important to describe and better understand the potential limitations and barriers to the integration of ChatGPT and other AI-based CALL resources into language teaching practices.

This study aims to address these gaps by describing  the impact of ChatGPT on second language writing skills in high school foreign language classrooms. By exploring the experiences of language teachers who have integrated ChatGPT and other AI-based CALL resources into their writing instruction, this study will attempt to gain an understanding and possibly provide some insights into the benefits and limitations of these technologies and identify potential barriers to implementation. The findings of this study could possibly contribute to a better understanding of the role of AI and GPT technologies in second language writing instruction and help inform the development of effective language teaching practices.

Purpose

This research paper seeks to understand the effectiveness of ChatGPT in improving the second language writing skills of high school students in a foreign language classroom setting. Specifically, this study aims to explore the benefits and limitations of AI and GPT models, particularly ChatGPT, in improving the quality of writing instruction, and identify potential barriers to implementation. By focusing on the experiences of teachers who have integrated ChatGPT and other AI-based CALL resources into their language teaching practices, this study aims to provide practical insights into the role of AI and GPT technologies in second language writing instruction in this specific context. The findings of this study could potentially inform the effective incorporation of ChatGPT into language learning curricula to support the development of writing proficiency in a second language.

Research Question

The primary research question that will guide this investigation is: What are the specific effects of GPT technologies, such as ChatGPT, on the development of second language writing skills in high school classrooms?

Justification

The integration of AI and GPT technology in language learning has the potential to revolutionize the field of second language acquisition by providing learners with high-quality, authentic language input, real-time feedback, and personalized learning experiences. However, there is still limited research on how AI and GPT models can be effectively utilized to enhance specific language skills, such as writing, which is one of the most challenging areas of SLA. Moreover, little is known about how these technologies can be applied to high school students studying a foreign language in the classroom setting.

This research aims to narrow this gap by describing how ChatGPT can be used to enhance the quality of writing in a second language for high school students, in order to gain a better understanding of the impact of AI and GPT technologies on second language writing instruction.  The justification for this research is twofold. First, there is a need to understand how AI and GPT technologies can be effectively integrated into language learning curricula for high school students. Second, there is a need to develop effective strategies to improve students’ writing skills, as writing is often one of the most challenging areas of second language acquisition. The use of ChatGPT to provide personalized feedback and generate writing prompts has the potential to address these issues and revolutionize language learning for high school students.

Moreover, as technology continues to advance, it is essential to understand the potential benefits and drawbacks of integrating AI and GPT technologies into language learning. By describing the effectiveness of ChatGPT in enhancing writing skills for high school students, this research aims to inform future language learning practices and contribute to the advancement of the field of second language acquisition. As Liu (2020) argues, “the impact of artificial intelligence on second language teaching and learning cannot be ignored and should be embraced in a thoughtful and meaningful way” (p. 131). This research aims to do just that by exploring the potential of ChatGPT to enhance the quality of writing in a second language for high school students.

Theoretical Framework

This study will explore the potential impact of AI and CALL-based software, particularly ChatGPT, on the development of writing proficiency in the foreign language classroom. To achieve this goal, this study will draw on several theoretical frameworks.

Firstly, the Sociocultural Theory of Language Learning emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cultural context in language learning (Vygotsky, 1978). By utilizing ChatGPT, learners can engage in interactive writing tasks that simulate real-life communication and cultural exchange. The chatbot can provide learners with feedback on their writing, which may help them develop their writing skills in an authentic and meaningful manner.

Secondly, the Input Hypothesis suggests that language acquisition takes place when learners are exposed to language input that is slightly beyond their current proficiency level (Krashen, 1985). GPT models can generate language input personalized to the learner’s proficiency level and interests, which can optimize the language input learners receive. This personalized input can, in turn, aid learners in enhancing their writing skills more effectively.

Thirdly, the Cognitive Writing Model highlights the cognitive processes involved in writing, such as planning, drafting, revising, and editing (Flower & Hayes, 1981). GPT technology can provide learners with real-time feedback on their writing, which can help them revise and edit their work more effectively. This can, in turn, enhance learners’ metacognitive awareness of the writing process and improve their overall writing proficiency.

Finally, the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework emphasizes the need to integrate technology into language learning in a meaningful and effective way (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). This study aims to describe how ChatGPT and other AI or CALL-based software can be integrated into foreign language instruction in a manner that is both pedagogically sound and effective.

By drawing on these theoretical frameworks, this study hopes to understand how the use of ChatGPT and other AI or CALL-based software may impact writing proficiency in the foreign language classroom. Through this investigation, the study will aim to contribute to the literature on the potential of these technologies to improve language learning and writing skills.

Literature Review

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) and generative pre-trained transformer (GPT) technology in second language acquisition (SLA) and computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has gained increasing attention in recent years. GPT models have the potential to generate high-quality, authentic language input, provide real-time feedback, and support personalized learning experiences, thus enhancing language learning outcomes (Lai et al., 2017; Godwin-Jones, 2019). However, limited research has been conducted on the effectiveness of AI and GPT models in enhancing specific language skills, such as writing, particularly in high school foreign language classrooms (Li, 2020; Wang & Derakhshan, 2021).

The current study aims to examine the potential benefits and limitations of AI and GPT models, specifically ChatGPT, in improving the quality of writing instruction in a high school foreign language classroom setting. To gain a better understanding of the role of AI and GPT models in language learning, researchers have emphasized the importance of a transdisciplinary approach to applying AI in education, including language learning (Brierley & Kempe, 2021).

Studies have shown that AI can provide personalized language learning experiences, support language instruction, provide feedback, and promote autonomous learning (Kuo & Chuang, 2021; Goo & Paek, 2021). Recent studies have highlighted the potential of AI and GPT models in providing personalized language learning experiences. Hsu et al. (2021) found that personalized AI-assisted English vocabulary learning was more effective than traditional methods. Lai et al. (2017) reported positive results in their case study on improving English grammar proficiency using AI technology. Dai, Yang, and Xue (2022) provided insights into how pre-training models can advance AI in language learning through a survey on natural language processing. Liu (2020) explored the benefits and challenges of integrating AI into language learning, while Sun and Chen (2021) investigated the potential of AI in providing personalized learning experiences and facilitating communication.

In SLA, researchers have proposed different theories on language acquisition, such as Krashen’s (1982) input hypothesis and Lyster’s (2007) counterbalanced approach. Brown (2021) analyzed the implications of GPT models in second language acquisition, while Johnson (2018) reviewed the efficacy of AI and GPT models in SLA. Jones (2019) discussed the ethical considerations in using AI and GPT models in second language acquisition.

Several researchers have explored different aspects of language learning, such as written composition, and have shown the potential of AI and GPT models in this area. Bereiter and Scardamalia (2014) provided a comprehensive overview of written composition in language learning, while Crossley and McNamara (2017) provided a historical overview of computers and second language learning, including the potential of AI and GPT models. Shen et al. (2019) found that GPT-generated writing prompts can help learners produce more natural and accurate language. Similarly, Hsu et al. (2021) used GPT models to generate English reading materials for EFL learners and found that the GPT-generated materials were more effective in improving reading comprehension than traditional materials.

It is important to consider the limitations and challenges associated with the use of AI and GPT models in language learning. The quality of language data used to train AI models can significantly impact their effectiveness (Chen et al., 2019). Moreover, AI models may have biases and limitations that can lead to incomplete or inaccurate language models (Jones, 2019). Therefore, it is essential to carefully evaluate the potential benefits and limitations of AI and GPT models in language learning and develop effective strategies for their integration into language learning curricula. To address these challenges, researchers have proposed a variety of approaches to integrating AI and GPT models into language learning, such as task-based language learning (TBLT) and learner-centered instruction (Liu, 2020; Goo & Paek, 2021). In addition, studies have investigated the role of teacher training and professional development in effectively integrating AI and GPT models into language learning curricula (Wang & Derakhshan, 2021).

In the context of second language writing instruction, studies have investigated the potential of AI and GPT models to provide real-time feedback and generate writing prompts. Shen et al. (2019) found that GPT-generated writing prompts were effective in helping learners produce more natural and accurate language, while Zhang et al. (2020) reported that AI-generated feedback was more effective than human-generated feedback in improving writing accuracy and fluency. Moreover, the use of ChatGPT has shown promise in providing personalized feedback and generating writing prompts for language learners (Kim et al., 2021).

Overall, the literature review suggests that AI and GPT models have the potential to revolutionize language learning by providing personalized learning experiences, feedback, and supporting language instruction. However, their efficacy and limitations must be carefully evaluated, and effective strategies for their integration into language learning curricula must be developed. In addition, ethical considerations must be taken into account, and language teachers and students must be provided with the necessary skills to effectively use these technologies. This researcher will aim to potentially contribute to this ongoing conversation by investigating the impact of ChatGPT on writing proficiency in the high school foreign language classroom setting.

Research Design

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study is to understand and describe the effects of GPT technology, specifically ChatGPT and other AI-based CALL resources, on the writing skills of high school students studying a second language. The study’s primary research question is focused on the specific effects of GPT technologies on the development of second language writing skills and the overall learning experience in high school classrooms. While AI and GPT technologies have the potential to enhance second language acquisition by providing high-quality language input, real-time feedback, and personalized learning experiences, there is limited research on the impact of these technologies on specific language skills, particularly writing, in high school foreign language classrooms. Given the significance of writing in SLA and academic success, this study aims to understand how AI and GPT models, like ChatGPT, can enhance second language writing skills and be effectively integrated into writing instruction within this specific context. The study will also address the challenges associated with using AI and GPT technology in language learning, such as the need for high-quality language data and potential for biased or incomplete language models.

To achieve these aims, the study will adopt a qualitative phenomenological research design as outlined by Creswell (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). A phenomenological approach is well-suited for examining individuals’ lived experiences and the subjective meanings they ascribe to phenomena. Furthermore, a hermeneutic phenomenological approach will be employed to emphasize the interpretation of experiences within the context of participants’ cultural, social, and historical backgrounds. By utilizing a phenomenological research design and maintaining reflexivity, this study will aim to provide a focused and insightful description of foreign language teachers’ experiences with ChatGPT and other AI-based CALL resources and contribute valuable insights into the potential benefits and limitations of AI integration in second language teaching.

The study will involve four to six foreign language teachers from different high schools located in the Middle Georgia area, selected using purposive sampling, focusing on those who have experience implementing ChatGPT or other AI software such as Duolingo in their classrooms. To ensure diverse perspectives, the sample will include teachers with various language backgrounds, teaching experience levels, and instructional approaches.

Data will be collected through in-depth interviews, reflective journals, and non-participant observations. Semi-structured interviews will be conducted with each teacher participant to gather detailed information about their experiences using ChatGPT, Duolingo, and other AI-based CALL resources in second language writing instruction. Alongside the interviews, participants will be asked to maintain reflective journals during the study period, detailing their experiences and thoughts about using these AI-based CALL resources in their writing instruction practice.

Furthermore, the researcher will conduct non-participant observations in the participants’ classrooms to gain further insights into the practical implementation of ChatGPT, Duolingo, and other AI-based resources on second language writing instruction in high school classrooms. The use of multiple data collection methods will provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of ChatGPT and other AI-based CALL resources on second language writing skills in high school foreign language classrooms in Middle Georgia.

In conclusion, this qualitative phenomenological study aims to address the research gap by describing the effects of GPT technologies, such as ChatGPT, on the writing skills of high school students studying a second language in Middle Georgia. Through this study, we hope to identify the specific impacts of these technologies on second language writing skills and the overall learning experience in high school classrooms. The study will seek to explore the potential benefits and limitations of AI integration in second language teaching and hopefully provide valuable insights into the effective integration of these technologies into writing instruction within this specific context.

Research Participants

The researcher plans to involve between four and six foreign language teachers from different high schools located in the Middle Georgia area, covering Bibb, Houston, Twiggs, Jones, Monroe, and Peach counties. Participants will be selected using purposive sampling, focusing on those who have experience implementing ChatGPT or other AI software such as Duolingo in their classrooms. To ensure diverse perspectives, the sample will include teachers with various language backgrounds, teaching experience levels, and instructional approaches (Palinkas et al., 2015).

To recruit the participants, several standard methods will be employed. These include contacting local school districts and foreign language departments to identify teachers who have experience with ChatGPT or other AI software, posting invitations to participate in online forums or mailing lists related to second language teaching, and using a snowball sampling approach by asking recruited teachers to refer their colleagues who meet the study’s criteria. Additionally, the researcher plans to attend local conferences and workshops related to second language teaching to network with potential participants.

To ensure confidentiality and obtain informed consent from all participants in the study, the following steps will be taken:

1. Informed consent will be obtained from all participants, clearly explaining the purpose of the research, their role in the study, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence.
2. Participants’ identities will be protected to the extent possible while still allowing for data collection, and any identifying information will be kept separate from the data.
3. All data collected will be treated confidentially, with access limited to the researcher and any necessary research team members.
4. Data storage and handling will follow secure practices, such as using password-protected electronic devices and keeping physical documents in a locked location.
5. When reporting findings, any information that could potentially identify a participant will be generalized or omitted.

By following these steps, the study will maintain the confidentiality of participants while ensuring their informed consent and protecting their personal information.

Data Collection Procedures/Techniques

This study will use a combination of in-depth interviews, reflective journals, and classroom observations to collect data on the impact of AI-based CALL resources on second language writing skills. Semi-structured interviews will be conducted with each teacher participant to gather detailed information about their experiences using ChatGPT, Duolingo, and other AI-based CALL resources in second language writing instruction. Alongside the interviews, participants will be asked to maintain reflective journals during the study period, detailing their experiences and thoughts about using these AI-based CALL resources in their writing instruction practice. Furthermore, the researcher will conduct non-participant observations in the participants’ classrooms to gain further insights into the practical implementation of ChatGPT, Duolingo, and other AI-based CALL resources and their impact on teaching and learning dynamics in second language writing.

To begin, the researcher will obtain permission from high school administrations and participants in the Middle Georgia area, which includes Bibb, Houston, Twiggs, Jones, Monroe, and Peach counties. Next, in-depth interviews with participants will be scheduled and conducted using an interview protocol covering topics such as perceived effectiveness, benefits, challenges, and the impact of ChatGPT, Duolingo, and other AI-based CALL resources on writing instruction practices and student engagement. The interviews will be audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim.

Following the interviews, participants will be provided with reflective journals to document their experiences and thoughts about using these AI-based CALL resources in their writing instruction practice. Non-participant classroom observations will also be conducted, and findings will be documented using field notes. After data collection, the researcher will transcribe interviews and analyze data from interviews, reflective journals, and field notes using thematic content analysis. This process will allow the researcher to document findings, draw conclusions based on identified themes and patterns, and present the results.

Analysis

The findings of this study will be discussed in terms of their implications for second language writing instruction and learning, as well as the integration of AI technologies like ChatGPT in language education. The study aims to provide a better understanding of the potential benefits and limitations of using AI-based CALL resources to enhance second language writing outcomes for high school students.

The analysis of the data collected from interviews, reflective journals, and field notes will employ a simplified thematic content analysis approach. This process will involve identifying the most prominent themes and patterns within the data, focusing on those that are most clearly evident. The coding process will be streamlined by only categorizing the most salient themes and using a smaller set of categories. To support data management and analysis, the researcher may opt for using basic software tools or manual organization methods.

Ethical Considerations

As with any research study, ethical considerations are of utmost importance to ensure the protection and well-being of the study participants. The following guidelines will be followed to ensure ethical conduct throughout the study:

Informed consent will be obtained from all participants before the study commences, following the guidelines of the Belmont Report (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). This consent will include a clear explanation of the research purpose, methods, potential risks, and benefits. Participants will be informed of their rights to withdraw from the study at any time without any negative consequences. (Creswell & Creswell, 2018)

Confidentiality of participants will be ensured throughout the research process by protecting their identities and personal information. Pseudonyms will be used when reporting data to maintain confidentiality, and any identifying information will be removed or altered in the presentation of findings to prevent the identification of individual participants (Orb, Eisenhauer, & Wynaden, 2000).

Reflexivity will be maintained throughout the research process by documenting personal thoughts, biases, and assumptions that may influence data interpretation. This will help ensure that the researcher remains aware of their own potential influence on the research process and contributes to the trustworthiness and credibility of the study (Finlay, 2002).

Furthermore, the researcher will ensure that the study adheres to the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence, ensuring that the potential benefits of the study outweigh any potential risks to the participants (Beauchamp & Childress, 2013).

As Albert Einstein once said, “It has become appallingly clear that our technology has surpassed our humanity.” However, by adhering to strict ethical guidelines, we can ensure that our use of technology, including AI-based CALL resources, is humane and beneficial, particularly in the context of language education. By protecting the well-being and dignity of the participants, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the integration of AI-based CALL resources in second language writing instruction and contribute to the development of effective language learning practices.

Watchdog Approved

Winston’s Pick — Winston sat through 11 years of Spanish classes — he approves these.

A Frequency Dictionary of Spanish by Mark Davies
The 5,000 words your students should learn before outsourcing their essays to a chatbot.

Check Price on Amazon

Books on AI in Education
For everyone wondering whether the robots are coming for the red pen.

Check Price on Amazon

Dr. Wood’s AP Spanish Practice Exam (Teachers Pay Teachers)
From the man who lived this article — 11 years in Georgia Spanish classrooms, now a PhD. 31 pages of AP prep.

See it on TPT

As an Amazon Associate, we earn from qualifying purchases.

Where Things Stand in 2026

When this study was designed in early 2024, ChatGPT in the writing classroom was mostly argument and anecdote. The evidence has started to arrive, and it reads like a footnote to the design below. A November 2025 paper in TESL-EJ, the Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, tested ChatGPT integrated into teacher feedback and landed on a blended model: the AI’s rapid comments on thesis clarity, development, and grammar worked best when the teacher corrected its misses, added context it could not have, and turned its output into a conversation with the student.

A 2025 case study of adult learners revising with ChatGPT, published in Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, found the same shape from the student side. Learners used the tool mainly for word choice and sentence level fixes, wrote simple one-shot prompts, and rarely pushed back when an answer was unsatisfying. The gains were real but micro level: cleaner grammar, wider vocabulary, better readability, with little change to content or structure. A 2025 systematic review of ChatGPT feedback studies adds the caution this study predicted: students can gain in writing performance while feeling less ownership of the text, especially when the AI does the revising instead of coaching it.

Put together, the field has converged on the position this research was built to test. AI feedback is a powerful first reader and a poor final authority. The teacher’s job has not vanished. It has moved upstream, to teaching students how to prompt, question, and overrule the machine.

Frequently Asked Questions

Does ChatGPT actually improve second language writing?

The best current evidence says yes, at the level of grammar, vocabulary, and readability, especially when feedback is immediate and the student does the revising. Gains in ideas, organization, and voice are much weaker when the AI works alone.

Is using ChatGPT on a writing assignment cheating?

It depends on who does the thinking. Asking for feedback on your own draft, explanations of your errors, or practice prompts is tutoring. Submitting generated text as your own work is misrepresentation, and it also skips the struggle that produces learning.

Why study teachers instead of just testing students?

Tests can show that scores moved. Teachers can tell you why: which students leaned on the tool, which ones argued with it, and where the feedback quietly misled a class. This phenomenological study was designed to capture that lived classroom detail.

What is AI-based CALL?

CALL is computer-assisted language learning, a field older than the smartphone. AI-based CALL is its current chapter, where tools like ChatGPT, Duolingo, and Rosetta Stone use large language models to generate input, feedback, and conversation practice.

What should a teacher do differently on Monday morning?

Teach prompting as a writing skill, require students to show the draft the AI saw and the changes they rejected, and keep your own feedback aimed at ideas and voice, the ground the AI covers worst.

One question for the road: teachers, when a student turns in writing that is better than anything they have produced in your classroom, what do you do next? I have my answer from 11 years of Spanish classes, and I would like to hear yours in the comments.

References

Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (2014). The Psychology of Written Composition. Routledge.

Brierley, J., & Kempe, A. (2021). Artificial intelligence, education and the future of work: A transdisciplinary approach to research and practice.

Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

Brown, R. (2021). Implications of GPT models in Second Language Acquisition. Linguistics Today, 35(2), 78-95.

Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition: Foundations for teaching, testing, and research. Cambridge University Press.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage Publications.

Crossley, S. A., & McNamara, D. S. (2017). Computers and Second Language Learning: Past, Present and Future. John Benjamins Publishing.

Dai, W., Yang, Y., & Xue, G. (2022). How can pre-training models advance natural language processing? A survey. Journal of Computer Science and Technology, 36(2), 202-225. doi: 10.1007/s11390-020-00832-9

Davies, S., & Dodd, J. (2002). Qualitative research and the question of rigor. Qualitative Health Research, 12(2), 279-289.

DiCicco‐Bloom, B., & Crabtree, B. F. (2006). The qualitative research interview. Medical Education, 40(4), 314-321.

Duolingo. (n.d.). Company. https://www.duolingo.com/company

Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.

Finlay, L. (2002). “Outing” the researcher: The provenance, process, and practice of reflexivity. Qualitative Health Research, 12(4), 531-545.

Galletta, A. (2013). Mastering the semi-structured interview and beyond: From research design to analysis and publication. NYU Press.

Gass, S. M., & Mackey, A. (2007). Input, interaction, and output: An overview. A guide to research on second language teaching and learning, 3-16.

Goo, J., & Paek, J. (2021). Understanding the relationship between artificial intelligence and language learning: A review of the literature. Educational Research Review, 31, 100348. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100348

Gredler, M. E. (2016). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (7th ed.). Pearson.

Hsu, Y. C., Lin, Y. H., & Huang, Y. M. (2021). The effects of personalized AI-assisted English vocabulary learning on EFL learners’ vocabulary acquisition and retention. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 14(1), 31-54.

Johnson, L. (2018). The efficacy of AI and GPT models in Second Language Acquisition: A review of the literature. Applied Linguistics Review, 9(1), 27-45.

Jones, M. (2019). Ethical considerations in the use of AI and GPT models in Second Language Acquisition. TESOL

Jones, M. (2019). Ethical considerations in the use of AI and GPT models in Second Language Acquisition. TESOL Journal, 20(3), 45-62.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon.

Kuo, I. H., & Chuang, T. Y. (2021). Impact of artificial intelligence on language learning: An updated review. Education and Information Technologies, 26(1), 1105-1126. doi: 10.1007/s10639-020-10381-x

Lai, C., Zhu, W., Chen, C., & Li, W. (2017). Using AI technology to enhance teaching and learning: A case study on improving English grammar proficiency. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 10(1), 1-14.

Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. Longman Publishing Group.

Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. Ritchie & T. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). Academic Press.

Liu, D. (2020). The impact of artificial intelligence on second language teaching and learning. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 8(8), 129-139. doi: 10.11114/jets.v8i8.4927

Lyster, R. (2007). Learning and teaching languages through content: A counterbalanced approach. John Benjamins Publishing.

Meskill, C. (2018). Language learning with technology: Methods and approaches. TESOL Press.

Rosetta Stone. (n.d.). Our History.

Shen, L., Wang, T., Su, J., & Zhu, X. (2019). Generating Writing Prompts for ESL Students with Generative Pre-trained Transformer. In Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (pp. 5628-5637).

Smith, J. (2020). How AI and GPT technology can enhance language learning outcomes. Journal of Applied Linguistics, 45(2), 123-140.

Smith, P. Q. (2020). The impact of AI and GPT models on second language acquisition. Journal of Second Language Acquisition, 3(2), 32-47.

Sun, C., & Chen, Y. (2021). The impact of artificial intelligence on language learning. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 9(1), 40-45. doi: 10.4236/jss.2021.91004.

Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257-285.

Usesignhouse. (2022, December 30). Duolingo Stats & Demographics for 2022 [Infographic]. https://www.usesignhouse.com/blog/duolingo-stats

VanLehn, K. (2011). The relative effectiveness of human tutoring, intelligent tutoring systems, and other tutoring systems. Educational Psychologist, 46(4), 197-221.

Vesselinov, R., & Grego, J. (2019). Duolingo effectiveness study. Duolingo, Inc.

Warschauer, M., & Healey, D. (1998). Computers and language learning: an overview. Language Teaching, 31(02), 57-71. Zhang, M., Zhang, J., & Liu, H. (2020). Feedback-based GPT-2 in the writing domain: An exploration of student writing performance and feedback quality. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 13(1), 41-54. Zhang, Y., Li, H., Li, X., & Li, S. (2020). Natural language processing and language learning: A survey. IEEE Access, 8, 41423-41438.